The development of anthelmintic resistance and the high cost of conventional anthelmintic drugs led to the evaluation of medicinal plants as an alternative source of anthelmintics. In the current study, in-vitro experiments were conducted to determine the possible anthelmintic effects of crude aqueous and hydroalcoholic extracts of the leaves of Chenopodium ambrosioides, Lawsonia inermis and seeds of Jatropha curcas, on eggs and adult Haemonchus contortus. Both extracts of C. ambrosioides and J. curcas inhibited the hatching of eggs at a concentration less than or equal to 2mg/ml, while the effect of L. inermis was not dose-dependent and did not inhibit the hatching of eggs of H. contortus, significantly, at all tested concentrations. Based on their ED ₅₀ , the two most potent extracts using egg hatch assay were the hydroalcoholic extract of C. ambrosioides (0.09mg/ml) and the aqueous extract of J. curcas (0.1mg/ml) in a decreasing order of potency. With regard to the effect of extracts on the survival of adult parasites, extracts from C. ambrosioides have shown a moderate effect, while J. curcas and L. inermis have shown no statistically significant effect on the survival of adult parasites at the concentrations tested, and the few mortality cases recorded were not dose-dependent ( P < 0.05). The overall findings of the present study have shown that C. ambrosioides and J. curcas contain possible anthelmintic compounds and further evaluation of these plants should be carried out.

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The present study was conducted to isolate the most important bioactive compound from Coffea arabica (coffee) beans and Camellia sinensis (green tea) leaves. Caffeine (3,7-dihydro-1,3,7-trimethyl-1H-purine-2,6-dione) was isolated from both plants using a liquid-liquid extraction method, detected on thin layer chromatography (TLC) plates in comparison with standard caffeine, which served as a positive control. Moreover, Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectrometer and High performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) analyses were used to confirm the purity and characterization of the extracted caffeine. The isolated material(s) from both plants were investigated for their single and combined antibacterial activities against six selected pathogenic bacteria. The Gram-positive bacteria were; Staphylococcus aureus , Bacillus cereus and Gram-negative bacteria included; Escherichia coli , Proteus mirabilis , Klebsiella pneumonia and Pseudomonas aeruginosa . Both compounds at a concentration of 2 mg/ml showed similar antibacterial activities against all tested bacteria, except for P. mirabilis , and the highest inhibitory effect was observed against P. aeruginosa using a modified agar diffusion method. The minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) of caffeine was determined using a broth microdilution method in 96 multi-well microtitre plates. MIC values ranged from 62.5 to 250.0 µg/ml for the caffeine isolated from coffee and 62.5 to 500.0 µg/ml for green tea caffeine. Combination results showed additive effects against most pathogenic bacteria especially for P. aeruginosa, using both antibacterial assays.

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The plant kingdom plays a major role in the life of human beings and animals. The plant, as one of the important sources, still maintains its original place in the treatment of various diseases, including tumours (neoplasms), with no ill effects. Considerable studies have been carried out on ethnomedicinal plants of India; however, only few medicinal plants have attracted the interest of scientists, to investigate them for a remedy for tumours. Plants may promote host resistance against infection by restabilizing body equilibrium and conditioning body tissues. In fact, ethnomedicinal plants (indigenous system of medicine) are easily available, cheaper and possess no toxicity. Hence, this review contributes to the knowledge of certain ethnomedicinal plants, which are prevalent for prevention and treatment of benign and malignant (cancer) tumours.

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Preliminary phytochemical and antibacterial investigations were carried out of the crude extracts obtained from the leaf of Adhatoda vasica, using solvents of varied polarity. The presence of phenols, tannins, alkaloids, anthraquinones, saponins, flavanoids, aminoacids and reducing sugars was indicated by the tests conducted. The effect of ethanol, petroleum ether and water extracts were tested on Staphylococcus aureus, Staphylococcus epidermidis, Bacillus subtilis, Enterococcus faecalis, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeroginosa, Proteus vulgaris, Klesiella pneumoniae and Candida albicans . The minimum inhibitory concentration of the crude extracts was determined for various organisms.

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A simple, precise and accurate high-performance thin-layer chromatographic (HPTLC) method has been established and validated for screening and quantitative estimation of caffeine in different extracts of tea samples ( Camellia sinenesis ) . Separation was performed on silica gel 60 F ₂₅₄ HPTLC plates with ethyl acetate:methanol in the proportion of 27: 3 ( v/v ), as a mobile phase. The determination was carried out in the ultraviolet (UV) region using the densitometric remission-absorbance mode at 274nm. Maximum recovery of caffeine was achieved when extracted with 5% diethyl amine in DM water (v/v). The maximum concentration of caffeine in tea samples was found to be 2.145%, dry weight basis. Caffeine response was found to be linear over the range of 2-14µg per zone. Limits of detection and quantitation were found to be 40 and 120ng/spot, respectively. The HPTLC method was validated in terms of precision, accuracy, sensitivity and robustness. Some rare parameters for the HPTLC method like calculation of flow constant (k) and plate efficiency (N) are included specially.

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In an approach towards the development of ecofriendly antifungal compounds for controlling plant diseases caused by Fusarium oxysporum , different extracts of three weed plants, namely, Capparis decidua, Lantana camara and Tridax procumbens, were tested for their antifungal potential. The spore germination/spore counting technique was followed for the evaluation of the antibiotic properties of the extracts at three different concentrations. Results revealed that the free flavonoids and sterols of T. procumbens (flower) and bound flavonoids of C. decidua (fruit and stem) totally inhibited spore germination of the fungi (100%). The antifungal components from these plants could be used in developing novel fungicides (biopesticides) for the diseases caused by F. oxysporum (plant pathogen).

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To evaluate the immunomodulatory activity of the ethanolic extract of the stem bark of Bauhinia variegata Linn, to justify the traditional claim endowed upon this herbal drug as a rasayana in Ayurveda. The effect of the ethanolic extract of the stem bark of Bauhinia variegata (EBV) on the primary and secondary antibody responses was evaluated by the humoral antibody response for a specific immune response. The effect of EBV on the phagocytic activity was evaluated by the carbon clearance test and neutrophil activation was evaluated by the neutrophil adhesion test for a nonspecific immune response. The data was analysed by one-way ANOVA followed by Tukey-Kramar multiple comparison tests. On oral administration, EBV showed a significant increase in the primary and secondary humoral antibody responses, by increasing the hemagglutinating antibody titre at doses of 250 and 500mg/kg/p.o. There was a significant increase in the phagocytic index and percentage neutrophil adhesion at doses of 250 and 500mg/kg/p.o. The present study reveals that the ethanolic extract of the stem bark of Bauhinia variegata Linn holds a promise as an immunomodulatory agent, which acts probably by stimulating both the specific and nonspecific arms of immunity.

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This study elucidated the physical, thermal, sorption and functional properties of a gum obtained from the stem of Cissus refescence (CRG). Scanning electron microscopy (SEM), Particle size analysis, X-ray powder diffraction (XPRD), Thermo gravimetric analysis (TGA), Differential scanning colorimetry (DSC), Fourier transmittance infra red (FTIR), and Elemental analysis were used to characterize the gum sample. Tablets were prepared by incorporating an anti asthmatic drug; theophylline. In vitro drug release was carried out in simulated gastric and intestinal conditions. Effect of gum concentration on release kinetics was evaluated. CRG had a glass transition (Tg) and melting peak of 233.5 and 270 ^o C respectively. This material showed a 10.59 % loss in weight at 195 ^o C. The sample had very strong peaks at approximately 14 ^o , 15 ^o , 23 ^o , 24 ^o , and 29 ^o 2θ degrees of 2-theta (θ) in the X-Ray Powder Diffraction pattern. Elemental analysis showed that CRG contains 44.1, 7.1, 48.5, and 0.3% Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen and Nitrogen respectively. Release of theophylline under simulated biologic conditions varied between 2 to 12 hours depending on the concentration of the gum used in formulation. Drug release was found to be erosion-controlled initially (i.e. in SGF), but at later stage, it became swelling -controlled (i.e. in SIF). The results obtained in this study establish the fundamental characteristics of CRG. The matrices were pH sensitive and can potentially be used for intestinal drug delivery.

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Datura metel L. (Solanaceae) with its trade name "Thorn Apple" is a herb that exists in tropical, warm temperate regions of the old world, throughout the hills of India, up to an altitude of 8000 ft. The objective of the present study is to investigate the morphological and phytochemical variabilities in the wild taxa of D. metel. On the basis of 17 phenotypic traits three morphotypes I, II and III were identified, and highly significant variations were seen among them. The three morphotypes of the species, with quite distinct flower colours, that is, purple, yellow and white, had the same diploid chromosome number n=12. The pharmacological activities of D. metel are mainly attributed to the presence of two tropane alkaloids, namely hyoscyamine and scopolamine. For the systematic quantification of hyoscyamine and scopolamine in different plant parts such as, leaves, roots and seeds of these three wild morphotypes (I, II and III) of D. metel, the high performance thin layer chromatography (HPTLC) technique was employed. Better resolution was achieved by using chloroform:acetone:diethyl amine (50: 40: 10 v/v/v) as a mobile phase. Quantitative, densitometric evaluation of the plate was performed in the absorbance/reflectance mode at 530 nm. The average recovery of hyoscyamine and scopolamine was 97.4 and 96.8%, respectively, showing the excellent reproducibility of the method. The calibration curves were linear in the range of 1000-4000 ng for hyoscyamine and 500-2000 ng for scopolamine, respectively. The method was simple, precise, specific, sensitive, accurate and could be used for routine analysis as well as quality control of raw materials and herbal formulations. The present study has established a link between cytomorphological variations and chemical characterization for the first time and was also helpful in discovering the best genotype with richer active constituents for future herbal formulations.

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Alzheimer's disease (AD), a neurodegenerative disorder incapacitating elderly people towards the end of their life, accounts for approximately 70% of dementia. It affects 17-25 million elderly people worldwide. In spite of the remarkable increase in scientific knowledge about the pathobiology of AD, attempts other than modifying the cholinergic neurotransmission have proved futile. In Ayurveda a number of agents are in use, since ancient times, for chronic debilitating disorders. One such preparation, Ocimum sanctum (OS) has been found to possess anti-ulcerogenic, anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective activities. Because of the nonavailability of proper curative therapy for AD, the present study has been undertaken to evaluate the possible role of OS in experimental AD in rats. Experimental AD in rats was produced by a nucleus basalis magnacellularis lesion with ibotenic acid (IB) and intracerebroventricular (i.c.v) administration of colchicine (Col). Various behavioural tests and biochemical analysis were performed to explore the possible role of OS in AD. OS exhibited anxiolytic activity in an open field test. In an elevated plus maze test, OS significantly alleviated IB, and Col induced anxiety and depression in the Porsolt's swim test. In Morris' water maze test, OS pretreatments improved reference memory, working memory and spatial learning. Both IB and Col induced deficits in active avoidance learning and retention of learned behaviour, which were significantly reversed by OS. IB and Col induced increased lipid peroxidase activity, which was significantly reversed by OS (as seen from the reductions in the malondialdehyde level) and stabilized the rise in superoxide dismutase activity, but it had no effect on the acetylcholinesterase activity. OS might be effective in clinical AD by virtue of its cognition enhancement, antidepressant and antianxiety properties, which are the primary needs to be addressed in AD.

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The objective of the present study was to develop chitosan-based mucoadhesive microspheres of Clarithromycin, to provide a prolonged contact time for drug delivery of antibiotics, to treat stomach ulcers. Chitosan mucoadhesive microspheres with small particle size and good sphericity were prepared by an emulsification technique using glutaraldehyde as a cross linking agent. Glutaraldehyde, the aldehyde most frequently employed as a chemical cross linker agent for proteins, was also used as a control. The prepared microspheres were optimized by 3 ² factorial design, using the concentration of the cross linking agent (X ₁ ) and time of cross linking (X ₂ ) with respect to their morphological aspects, percentage entrapment, in-vitro drug release and percentage mucoadhesion. Microspheres were discrete, spherical and free flowing. The microspheres exhibited a good mucoadhesive property in the in vitro wash-off test and also showed a high percentage of drug entrapment efficiency. The best batch exhibited a high drug entrapment efficiency of 45% and percentage mucoadhesion after 5 hours was 15%. The drug release from microspheres was characterized by the initial burst effect followed by sustained release for more than 12 hours. It was concluded that drug entrapment efficiency was increased with an increase in glutaraldehyde concentration and an increase in cross linking time. As the glutaraldehyde concentration and cross linking time increased, the percentage of mucoadhesion decreased. Thus chitosan microspheres appeared to be, technically, promising mucoadhesive drug delivery systems for delivering Clarithromycin, to treat stomach ulcers.

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The anti-hyperglycemic and antioxidant potential of Nisha Kathakathadhi Churnam (NKC), an ayurvedic formulation, was estimated in alloxan-induced, hyperglycemic rats. Various enzymatic antioxidants, such as, superoxide dismutase, catalase, glutathione peroxidase, reduced glutathione and lipid peroxidation were estimated in the heart and pancreas of hyperglycemic rats. The effect of NKC on blood glucose levels was estimated on days 0, 10, 20 and 30 of a 30-day study. A marked decrease in the blood glucose levels ( P < 0.001) was observed in hyperglycemic rats and the decreased activities of the key antioxidant enzymes increased to near normal (P<0.01) levels and the increased lipid peroxidation decreased in diabetic rats upon NKC treatment. These results suggest that NKC has promising antidiabetic and antioxidant activities in alloxan-induced diabetes.

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In this study, T. spicata var. intricata , endemic to Turkey, were collected from various localities of Mugla, Turkey. The essential oils were obtained using the hydrodistillation method. The antimicrobial activities of the essential oils on micro-organisms, including multiple antibiotic resistant bacteria, were evaluated using the disc diffusion method. The chemical composition of the essential oil was determined by gas chromatography (GC) and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). The essential oils were effective against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, which included multiple antibiotic resistant strains. However, Pseudomonas aeruginosa ATCC 27853 and Pseudomonas fluorescens MU 87 were resistant to these oils. The essential oils were very effective against Candida albicans . The antimicrobial activity of the essential oils showed some variations depending on the localities from which they were collected. A total 24 components were identified in the essential oil. The main components were characterized as carvacrol (75.74%), γ-terpinene (9.28%), p -cymene (7.17%), myrcene (1.39%), β-caryophyllene (1.13%) and thymol (0.15%), respectively.

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Solidago species have been used in popular medicine for the treatment of several inflammatory conditions. The aim of this study is to evaluate both the antimicrobial and antiplatelet effects of Solidago chilensis Meyen rhizome aqueous extract and its derived fractions using in-vitro models. The antimicrobial analysis was performed against Staphylococcus aureus (ATCC 25922), Escherichia coli (ATCC 25923) and Pseudomonas aeruginosa (ATCC 27853). The broth microdilution method was used to determine the minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC). The measurement of platelet aggregation was determined by turbidimetric methodology. Significant differences were determined by analysis of variance (ANOVA), Dunnett's or Student's t tests. Values of P < 0.05 were considered significant. The aqueous extract and its derived fractions prevented the growth of all the three tested microbial species. Furthermore, these extracts also significantly inhibited platelet aggregation (% of inhibition: AE: 45.0±4.0%, BuOH: 29.6±3.1% to 13.8±2.6%, and AR: 41.7±4.2%). Solidago chilensis Meyen rhizomes demonstrated important antimicrobial and antiplatelet aggregation activities, which may underlie their beneficial effect on bacterial infection and atherothrombotic diseases.

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The leaves of Wendlandia thyrsoidea were extracted with different solvents and screened for their antimicrobial and analgesic activities. The antimicrobial activity was evaluated using the minimum inhibitory concentration method and the analgesic activity was carried out by the acetic acid-induced writhing method. The ethyl acetate extract exhibited potent antimicrobial activity, whereas, the methanol extract showed a significant analgesic activity.

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