In the present article, an endeavor has been made to present an overview of the comparison of Indian traditional herbal medicine in the international market. This article intends to contribute to this knowledge by giving a survey of published data regarding the microbial contamination of herbal plants, by dealing with methodological aspects and by considering the influence of different commonly used pharmaceutical preparation techniques on the microbiological status of the products. It also highlights heavy metal poisoning of these herbal products and the need for India to follow the Good Agriculture Practice (GAP) guidelines. As herbal medicinal products are complex mixtures, which originate from biological sources, great efforts are necessary to guarantee a constant and adequate quality. By carefully selecting the plant material and a standardized manufacturing process, the pattern and concentration of constituents should be kept as constant as possible, as this is a prerequisite for reproducible therapeutic results. China has successfully overcome such difficulties by modernizing its traditional medicine profession with government-sponsored GAPs. The cultivation practices offer Standard Operating Procedures for use of fertilizers, irrigation systems and disease management allied with insects and pest prevention and cure. GAPs also establish standards for noxious and harmful contaminants like heavy metals, pesticide residues and microbes in plants.

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Wattakaka volubilis (Family: Asclepiadaceae) has been reported to possess medicinal effects. In the present study, the dried leaf extract [methanol-water (1:1)] of W. volubilis designated as 'the extract' was evaluated for pharmacological activity in rats and mice. The anti-inflammatory activity was evaluated using acute, sub-chronic and chronic models of inflammation in rodents. The antipyretic and analgesic activities were evaluated in mice models. In the acute toxicity study, it was found that the extract was non-toxic up to 1 g/kg, i.p. The extract (50, 100 and 200 mg/kg, i.p.) was found to possess, anti-inflammatory, analgesic and antipyretic activities in a dose-dependent manner and the effect was comparable with that produced by the standard drug, ibuprofen. The extract significantly inhibited the arachidonic acid-induced paw oedema in rats, indicating that the extract inhibited both the cyclo-oxygenase and lipo-oxygenase pathways of arachidonic acid metabolism. The extract also significantly enhanced the macrophage count in mice in a dose- and time-dependent manner. It is possible that the saponins present in the extract may be responsible for these activities.

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Karnim Plus, an herbal formulation marketed for diabetes, was investigated for its glucose tolerance, hypoglycaemic, and antidiabetic effects in rats. The glucose tolerance test was studied at 400 mg/kg. Hypoglycemic studies were carried out in normal rats at two dose levels, 200 mg/kg and 400 mg/kg. Antidiabetic effect was analyzed in alloxan-induced diabetic rats at two dose levels, 200 mg/kg and 400 mg/kg. Glibenclamide, 4 mg/kg, was used as the standard drug. The biochemical parameters such as glucose, urea, creatinine, serum cholesterol, and serum triglyceride were also assessed in experimental animals. The product showed its effectiveness in oral glucose tolerance test and antidiabetic activity, but it did not produce hypoglycemic effect. Treatment of diabetic rats with the product restored the elevated biochemical parameters significantly. The present study supports the use of this product as an antidiabetic.

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The ethanolic extract of roots of Plumbago indica and aerial parts of Aerva lanata were evaluated for antifertility activity using anti-implantation, abortificient, and motility of rat spermatozoa (in-vitro) models. The anti-implantation effect seems to be depending on the dose as well as the initiation of treatment on specific days of pregnancy. P. indica has showed percentage pre-implantation loss of 40% and 50% against control at the doses of 200 and 400 mg/kg b/w. Percentage pregnancy failure among treated groups was 60% and 70% at the doses of 200 and 400 mg/kg b/w, whereas A. lanata has shown pre-implantation loss of 20% and 30% against control at the dose of 200 and 400 mg/kg b/w, respectively. Percentage pregnancy failure among treated groups was 30% and 40% at the dose of 200 and 400 mg/kg b/w, respectively. Both P. indica and A. lanata at a concentration of 10% have shown no motility of rat spermatozoa within 60 seconds.

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The anticancer-cytotoxic activities of isolated saponins, gymnemagenol (C ₃₀ H ₅₀ O ₄ ) from Gymnema sylvestre and dasyscyphin C (C ₂₈ H ₄₀ O ₈ ) from Eclipta prostrata leaves were tested under in vitro conditions in HeLa cells. The gymnemagenol and dayscyphin C at 50 μg/ml showed a good cytotoxic activity (63% and 52%, respectively) in HeLa cells at 48 hours with the IC50 value of 37 and 50 μg/ml, respectively. 5-Fluorouracil (5-FU), a positive control, showed 57.5 % cell death with the IC50 value of 36 μg/ml. The percentage of HeLa cell death was maximum (73%) after 96 hours with gymnemagenol, whereas dasyscyphin C showed only 53%. The isolated saponins were not toxic to Vero cells. From this study, it can be concluded that the saponins, gymnemagenol, and dayscyphin C have significant anticancer-cytotoxic activity on HeLa cells under in vitro conditions.

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The purpose of this study was to characterize the putative anxiolytic-like activity of an ethanolic extract prepared from the roots of Vitex negundo (VN) using the elevated plus maze (EPM) and light-dark exploration test in mice. Male mice were either treated orally with the VN extract or the positive control diazepam, respectively, 1 hour before behavioral evaluation. Oral administration of 100 and 200 mg/kg of VN extract significantly (P > 0.01) increased the percentage time spent on and the number of entries into the open arms of the EPM. The effect was comparable to that of the benzodiazepine diazepam (2 mg/kg p.o.). In light-dark exploration test, diazepam-treated rats significantly increased the time spent in light arena and decreased the duration of immobility, while VN treated rats also showed a significant (P >0.01) increase in the time spent (100 and 200 mg/kg) in light arena. Diazepam and the VN extracts do not produced any overt motor dysfunction. These results indicate that VN is an effective anxiolytic agent. In conclusion, the action of extract upon the anxiety models tested are in accord with the traditional use of VN L. and could be useful in primary medical care.

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Gloriosa supberba (family: Liliaceae) is widely used as a medicinal plant, and the alkaloids from the plant (Colchicines and Gloriosine) are used in the treatment of gout and rheumatism. We evaluated the analgesic and anti-inflammatory activities of hydroalcoholic extract (50% v/v) of dried aerial parts of G. superba. The analgesic activity of the extract was evaluated by using Eddy's hot plate method and acetic acid-induced writhing method. The anti-inflammatory activity was evaluated by using the cotton wool granuloma model and the carrageenan-induced paw edema model. The percentage inhibitions of writhes or percentage protection were found to be 64.09%, 78.56% and 81.45% for extract at a dose 100, 200 and 400 mg/kg body weight, respectively, in the acetic acid-induced writhing method (P <0.01) when compared with control. The percentage increase in reaction time at 90 minutes were 21.02%, 79.96% and 158.05% for extract at a dose of 100, 200 and 400 mg/kg body weight, respectively, in Eddy's hot plate method (P <0.01) when compared with control. The percentage inhibition of paw edema was increased with time and gave maximum effect at 2 hours, then declined in case of standard extract 400 mg/kg body weight. Only the 200 and 400 mg/kg body weight extracts exhibited significant result (P <0.05) when compared with control. The rats exhibited 9.59%, 28.72% and 45.8% inhibition of granuloma mass formation after the 7 days treatment with 100, 200 and 400 mg/kg body weight of extract when compared with control (P <0.05) in cotton pellet granuloma.

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Bambusa vulgaris , commonly known as "Bamboo," possesses various pharmacological activities including anti-inflammatory activity. The present study is designed to investigate anti-inflammatory effect of methanolic extract of B. vulgaris (MEBV) on rats and mice. The anti-inflammatory effect is investigated employing acute inflammatory models: formaldehyde-induced paw edema, acetic acid-induced vascular permeability, subacute anti-inflammatory model: cotton pellet granuloma, estimation of plasma MDA and carrageenan-induced peritonitis. MEBV (100, 200 and 400 mg/kg, p.o) exhibited a dose-dependent and significant inhibition (P <0.01) in all the experimental models. Preliminary phytochemical screening revealed the presence of flavonoids, carbohydrates, glycosides, proteins, and alkaloids. The extract produces no mortality in the dose up to 2000 mg/kg, p.o. The results obtained suggest marked anti-inflammatory activity of the MEBV and support the traditional use of this plant in some painful and inflammatory conditions.

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The aim of this study is to examine the antihyperglycemic activity of root of Berberis aristata D.C. in alloxan-induced diabetic rats. Five groups of albino Wistar rats were used (n = 6). The two dose of 71.42 and 100 mg/kg body weight ethanol extract of B. aristata were selected for antidiabetic activity. Blood glucose levels were estimated in all the groups by the commercial kit (Span diagnostic Pvt. Ltd, Surat) on 1 ^st , 5 ^th , 10 ^th and 20 ^th day of the treatment with B. aristata. The serum cholesterol, triglycerides, HDL, liver glycogen and body weight were estimated on 20 ^th day of treatment in all the groups compared against diabetic control group. The different extracts of root of B. aristata were also tested for glucose tolerance test in normal fasted rats. The ethanol extract of root of B. aristata 71.42 and 100 mg/kg body weight showed a significant (P<0.01) reduction of serum glucose level in alloxan induced diabetic rats at 15 ^th day as compared to diabetic control group. Cholesterol and triglycerides level were increased very significantly (P<0.01), in diabetic animal when compared with normal control group. The level of cholesterol and triglycerides reduced very significantly (P<0.01), when compared with diabetic control group. The level of HDL cholesterol was significantly (P<0.05) increased in the extract treated group when compared to diabetic control group. In oral glucose tolerance test ethanol extract of B. aristata increase the glucose tolerance. It is concluded that the ethanol extract of B. aristata possess anti-diabetic activity in alloxan induced diabetic rats. The ethanol extract of B. aristata is very promising to develop standardized phytomedicine for diabetes mellitus.

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We screened the aqueous and methanol leaf and root extracts of Anthocleista djalonensis, Diospyros mespiliformis, and their combinations for possible anti-mycobacterial activities using Mycobacterium smegmatis as a surrogate screen. These plants are reputed among folk practices as potent remedy in the management of tuberculosis and leprosy cases. In the sensitivity screening study, only the methanol extracts of A. djalonensis and D. mespiliformis showed anti-mycobacterial activity, while the aqueous extracts exhibited no inhibitory activity on M. smegmatis. The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of the methanol leaf and root extract of A. djalonensis against M. smegmatis were 125 μg/ml. The MIC of the methanol leaf and root extracts of D. mespiliformis is 167 and 250 μg/ml, respectively. In the interaction studies, four out of nine decimal combinations of the two medicinal plant extracts exhibited synergism with fractional inhibitory concentration indices <1 and a negative activity index values. The 8:2 ratio of D. mespiliformis and A. djalonensis exhibited the greatest degree of antimycobacterial synergy against M. smegmatis. The result of this study supports the claims of efficacy reported in the folk use of these plants in mycobacterial infection and the plants could therefore be investigated further and harnessed as potent antimycobacterial agents.

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Genistein is a soya isoflavone, mainly found in legumes, such as soybeans. Isoflavones may prove multipurpose biochemicals that have several functions such contribute colour to plant, protect the plant against bacterial and fungal infections, and serve a hormone-like role (as a phytooestrogen) in plant cell regulation. Scientists are discovering that when people eat soy products, such as tofu and soymilk, isoflavones and their derivatives produce health benefits in addition to nutritional values. Among various soya isoflavones, genistein has been shown to have a wide range of activities in animal models and experimental studies. On account of its tyrosine kinase inhibiting, antioxidant and oestrogenic or antioestrogenic activities as well as its p53 regulatory properties, researchers have been making endeavours in studying its effects against oxidative stress and related disorders. Convincing studies on its anticancer, lipid lowering, anti-diabetic, antiradiation, against eye diseases, against photodamage, against obesity and as well as immune system enhancers or stimulants have been heeded upon in the scientific world. This review reports some of the activities of genistein.

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The crude extracts obtained from the aerial parts of Artemisia annua Linn. (Asteraceae) were investigated for their antibacterial activity by using agar well diffusion assays against five Gram-positive bacteria (Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus subtilis, Bacillus pumilus, Bacillus cereus, and Micrococcus luteus) and three Gram-negative bacteria (Escherichia coli, Salmonella typhi, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa). Of the various extracts, the methanol extract showed the strongest activity against most bacteria used in this study. The most sensitive organism to the extracts was M. luteus. The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) values were determined by the tube dilution method. The results showed that S. aureus required ~0.25 mg/mL of the methanol extract for inhibition. The HPTLC fingerprint of the methanol extract after derivatization with anisaldehyde sulphuric acid reagent showed a maximum number of separated components. TLC bioautography of the methanol extract showed that the area of inhibition around compounds differentiated at R _f = 0.32, R _f = 0.42, R _f = 0.46, R _f = 0.77, and R _f = 0.87 against S. aureus. This is the first report of the antibacterial activity of A. annua against food-borne bacteria. The results indicated that aerial parts of A. annua might be potential sources of new antibacterial agents.

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The hepatoprotective activity of methanolic extract of Amomum subulatum Roxb (Zingiberaceae) seeds was studied against 20 % ethanol (3.76 g/kg/days, p.o for 18 days) induced liver damage in rats. Ethanol produced significant changes in various liver parameters such as functional (thiopentone-induced sleeping time) and physical (increased liver weight and volume). It also increased the biochemical parameters such as serum glutamate oxaloacetic transaminase and glutamate pyruvic transaminase, alkaline phosphatase, total and direct bilirubin, total cholesterol, triglyceride and decreased total protein along with changes in histological parameters (damage to hepatocytes). Treatment with methanolic extract of A. subulatum (100 and 300 mg/kg/day, p.o. for 18 days) and silymarin significantly prevented the functional, physical, biochemical and histological changes induced by ethanol, indicating the recovery of hepatic cells. These results demonstrate that methanolic extract of A. subulatum seeds possessed the hepatoprotective activity.

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Sunlight stimulates hormone production, allows for the synthesis of vitamin D, promotes skin cell regeneration and contributes to all overall sense of well-being of individual. Also sunlight stimulates the melanin, the pigment that acts as the skin natural sunscreen. But excessive unprotected exposure to sunrays can lead to painful sunburn or other skin-related complications. This paper evaluates the UV absorption ability of flowers from Spathodea campanulata L. (Bignoniaceae) as an anti-solar agent. The extract was prepared by maceration with a mixture of distilled water and methanol (2:5). The method is performed by UV-visible spectrophotomety in the range of 200-400 nm and result of the extract showed maximum absorbance at 200-240 nm, while good absorbance at 240-325 nm. The moderate absorbance was noted at 310-340 nm.

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Seeds of medicinal plants are common ingredients of many folk and herbal medicines, and seed extracts have been reported to possess pharmacological activity including anti-inflammatory activity. In the present investigation, the methanolic extract of the dried ground seeds of Swietenia mahagoni (SMSE) has been evaluated for anti-inflammatory, analgesic, and antipyretic activities. The anti-inflammatory activity was evaluated using acute, sub-chronic, and chronic models of inflammation in rodents. The antipyretic and analgesic activities were evaluated in mice models. Acute toxicity studies revealed that the extract up to a dose of 1.2 g/kg intraperitoneally was nontoxic. SMSE at doses of 50 and 100 mg/kg, i.p. was found to possess anti-inflammatory, analgesic, and antipyretic activities and the effect was comparable with that produced by the standard drug, ibuprofen. The results of the experiment on arachidonic acid-induced paw edema in rat revealed that the extract produces anti-inflammatory activity through dual inhibition of the cyclo-oxygenase and lipo-oxygenase pathways of arachidonic acid metabolism. SMSE also enhanced peritoneal cell exudates along with macrophage significantly. The triterpenoids present in SMSE may be responsible for these activities. SMSE possesses anti-inflammatory, analgesic, and antipyretic activities.

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The effects of maize starch, a widely used tablet/granule disintegrator, and sodium lauryl sulphate, a surfactant, on the in vitro release of theophylline embedded in a polyacrylic acid polymer (carbopol 941) matrix were investigated. The presence of maize starch (MS) and sodium lauryl sulphate (SLS) led to about two-fold increase in the maximum cumulative (Cmax) amount of theophylline released within 8 hours in both simulated gastric and intestinal fluids (SGF and SIF respectively) without enzymes. The release of theophylline was generally faster in SIF and MS performed better than SLS as release enhancer. The overall result demonstrates that drug release was found to be pH dependent, swelling-controlled and the presence of MS and SLS though affected drug release, they did not affect release kinetics from the carbopol matrix.

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Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative disorder currently without an effective treatment. Impairment of memory is the initial and most significant symptom of AD. Memantine is the first novel class of AD medications acting on the glutaminergic system and produces symptomatic improvement in learning. Nootropic agents such as piracetam, aniracetam, and choline esterase inhibitors like donepezil are being used to improve memory, mood, and behavior, but the resulting side-effects associated with these agents have made their use limited. The present study was undertaken to investigate the effects of Rose alba (RA) on learning and memory in mice. Male Swiss albino mice (3 months old) weighing around 25 g were employed in the present investigation. Elevated plus-maze and passive-avoidance apparatus served as the exteroceptive behavioral models, and diazepam-induced amnesia served as the interoceptive behavioral models. RA (100 and 200 mg/kg p.o.) was administered for eight successive days to the mice. Piracetam (200 mg/kg i.p.) was used as a standard nootropic agent. RA improved learning and memory of mice as indicated by decreased transfer-latency and increased step-down latency. RA significantly reversed the amnesia induced by diazepam (1 mg/kg, i.p.). The results indicate that the aqueous extract of calyces of RA might prove to be a useful memory restorative agent in the treatment of cognitive disorders.

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Antidiabetic activity of trigonelline and antifertility activity of fenugreek seeds have been reported. However, the effect of trigonelline on fertility is not reported. The aim of the study was to determine the estrogenic activity of trigonelline (75 mg/kg) as well as its effect on fertility in rats. The estrogenic activity was assessed by the vaginal cornification method. Trigonelline was administered on days 1-7 of pregnancy. The animals were anesthetized and laprotomy was carried out on day 10. The number of implantation sites was counted. The wound was sutured and animals were allowed to recover. The number of pups born after 21 days was counted. Trigonelline was safe up to dose of 5000 mg/kg orally. Trigonelline (75 mg/kg) did not alter the estrous cycle of rats. Nonsignificant difference in the number of implants and pups born was observed in the trigonelline group compared to the control group. The lack of abortifacient activity or teratogenicity confirms the safety of trigonelline during pregnancy in rats.

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In the present study, product UNEX capsules (syn. Herbajules Tricare in Malaysia) was tested for diuretic activity using the Lipschitz test. The product UNEX containing the extracts of Boerhaavia diffusa and Tribulus terrestris was studied at two dose levels of 600 and 800 mg/kg body weight (p.o.). Standard drug used was furosemide (20 mg/kg body weight) in a 0.9% sodium chloride solution. Urine volume was recorded for all the groups for 5 hours. The product UNEX exhibited significant diuretic activity at doses of 600 and 800 mg/kg body weight as evidenced by increased total urine volume and the urine concentration of Na ⁺ , K ⁺ , and Cl⁻ . The result thus supports the use of product UNEX as diuretic.

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The aim of this study is to determine current prescribing patterns for anti-diabetic drugs adopted by physicians in Erode. The prospective, non interventional, uncontrolled, open-chart, pharmacoepidemiological study was conducted from January -2007 to April -2007 at a diabetic care centre having 350 diabetic patients. The pattern of prescribing anti-diabetic drugs was recorded along with glycosylated haemoglobin levels, total cholesterol, high-density lipoprotein, low-density lipoprotein, very low-density lipoprotein and triglycerides in insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus and non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus patients and the values were observed. The prescribing pattern of the oral anti-diabetic drugs shows that out of the various oral anti-diabetic drugs' available, drugs from only two groups were prescribed. Sulphonylureas, biguanides and combination therapy accounts for 31.43%, 20.28% and 33.71% of prescriptions, respectively, while insulin alone and with OAD's accounts for 6.28% and 8.29% prescriptions, respectively. Overall, prescribing trend is away from monotherapy with insulin and sulphonylureas and towards combination therapies.

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